the history of animals

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the history of animals by aristotle 1 book 1 1. of the parts of animals some are simple: to wit, all such as divide into parts uniform with themselves, as flesh into flesh; others are composite, such as divide into parts not uniform with themselves, as, for instance, the hand does not divide into hands nor the face into faces. and of such as these, some are called not parts merely, but limbs or members. such are those parts that, while entire in themselves, have within themselves other diverse parts: as for instance, the head, foot, hand, the arm as a whole, the chest; for these are all in themselves entire parts, and there are other diverse parts belonging to them. all those parts that do not subdivide into parts uniform with themselves are composed of parts that do so subdivide, for instance, hand is composed of flesh, sinews, and …

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r defect. thus in some the texture of the flesh is soft, in others firm; some have a long bill, others a short one; some have abundance of feathers, others have only a small quantity. it happens further that some have parts that others have not: for instance, some have spurs and others not, some have crests and others not; but as a general rule, most parts and those that go to make up the bulk of the body are either identical with one another, or differ from one another in the way of contrast and of excess and defect. for ‘the more’ and ‘the less’ may be represented as ‘excess’ or ‘defect’. once again, we may have to do with animals whose parts are neither identical in form nor yet identical save for differences in the way of excess or defect: but they are the same only in the …

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animals differ from one another in their modes of subsistence, in their actions, in their habits, and in their parts. concerning these differences we shall first speak in broad and general terms, and subsequently we shall treat of the same with close reference to each particular genus. differences are manifested in modes of subsistence, in habits, in actions performed. for instance, some animals live in water and others on land. and of those that live in water some do so in one way, and some in another: that is to say, some live and feed in the water, take in and emit water, and cannot live if deprived of water, as is the case with the great majority of fishes; others get their food and spend their days in the water, but do not take in water but air, nor do they bring forth in the water. many of these …

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er, and by and by change their shape and live out of water, as is the case with river worms, for out of these the gadfly develops. furthermore, some animals are stationary, and some are erratic. stationary animals are found in water, but no such creature is found on dry land. in the water are many creatures that live in close adhesion to an external object, as is the case with several kinds of oyster. and, by the way, the sponge appears to be endowed with a certain sensibility: as a proof of which it is alleged that the difficulty in detaching it from its moorings is increased if the movement to detach it be not covertly applied. other creatures adhere at one time to an object and detach themselves from it at other times, as is the case with a species of the so-called sea- nettle; for some of …

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er. (the apus is to be seen at all seasons, but the drepanis only after rainy weather in summer; for this is the time when it is seen and captured, though, as a general rule, it is a rare bird.) again, some animals move by walking on the ground as well as by swimming in water. furthermore, the following differences are manifest in their modes of living and in their actions. some are gregarious, some are solitary, whether they be furnished with feet or wings or be fitted for a life in the water; and some partake of both characters, the solitary and the gregarious. and of the gregarious, some are disposed to combine for social purposes, others to live each for its own self. gregarious creatures are, among birds, such as the pigeon, the crane, and the swan; and, by the way, no bird furnished with crooked talons is …

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the history of animals by aristotle 1 book 1 1. of the parts of animals some are simple: to wit, all such as divide into parts uniform with themselves, as flesh into flesh; others are composite, such as divide into parts not uniform with themselves, as, for instance, the hand does not divide into hands nor the face into faces. and of such as these, some are called not parts merely, but limbs or members. such are those parts that, while entire in themselves, have within themselves other diverse parts: as for instance, the head, foot, hand, the arm as a whole, the chest; for these are all in themselves entire parts, and there are other diverse parts belonging to …

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